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Who said history wasn’t relevant? Though at first glance a biography of a largely-discredited independent German missionary who was born almost two centuries ago might seem to have little to do with our current situation, Jessie Lutz’s masterful narrative and analysis of the life and times of Karl Gützlaff provokes the question, Has anything changed?
Hattaway, Paul. Guizhou: The Precious Province. In The China Chronicles: Inside the Greatest Christian Revival in History. London: SPCK, 2018.
Popular author Paul Hattaway (The Heavenly Man; Back to Jerusalem; An Asian Harvest – his autobiography) plans to write one volume on the history of Christianity for each province in China. So far, he has published books on Shandong, Guizhou, Zhejiang, Tibet, and Henan. I have read all of these, and I find them to be not only most informative but also fascinating and deeply moving.
Hattaway’s scholarship is impeccable but unobtrusive, for you are caught up in the thrilling narrative of God’s work among the people of China over the centuries. “My intention is not to present readers with a dry list of names and dates but to bring alive the marvelous stories of how God has caused His kingdom to take root and flourish in the world’s most populated country” (xiii). To put it another way, he simply wants to compile “a record of God’s mighty acts in China” (xiii). In other words, the focus of these books is squarely upon God.
For these stories, he has not only read more than a thousand articles and books but has also conducted “hundreds of hours of interviews . . . throughout China, with many testimonies that have never been shared in public” (xiii).
Guizhou: The Precious Province
Each volume opens with a brief description of the province under consideration.
“Guizhou” means “precious province” in Mandarin, but it can also mean “land of demons.” Indeed, the progress of the gospel in this mountainous and rainy province has been fiercely contested by the forces of evil. More than 80 different ethnic groups live in an area the size of Missouri and Oklahoma and larger than England, Wales, and Northern Ireland combined. The population is several times greater than the American states named above and 60 percent of the British kingdoms, however.
Because of the heavy, constant rains and the ubiquitous mountains, Guizhou is “indisputably one of the poorest regions of China” (6). Many people have migrated to other parts of China and countless girls are sold to human traffickers looking for brides to supply the shortage of females caused by the female infanticide and abortion during China’s one-child policy. Centuries of internecine warfare and Han Chinese aggression against the tribal peoples have left deep scars and suspicion toward outsiders.
Hattaway, an expert on China’s minority ethnic groups, pays special attention to the diversity and crucial distinctions within Guizhou’s immensely diverse population. He quotes Revelation 5:9–10 to remind us of the importance of each people group to God.
The growth of the church in Guizhou has not generally been marked by the kinds of massive revivals recorded in the volume about Shandong, but today there are about 2.7 million Christians, representing exponential increases since the Communists took over in 1949, despite all the obstacles and attacks upon Christians.
As in other books in the series, Hattaway traces the story of Christianity decade by decade, interposing chapters dedicated to a particular person or group. This book begins with a look at the mysterious origins of the Miao people, who trace their ancestry back to Adam and whose cultural memory includes a narrative of beginnings closely parallel to the one in Genesis.
Throughout the history of Christianity in China, followers of Christ have endured fierce opposition and, often, cruel persecution. In Guizhou, terrible suffering came upon believers from the beginning and continues to this day. A chief cause of hostility toward Christians was their refusal to participate in ancestor worship rituals and their unwillingness to contribute money to the many idolatrous festivals held throughout the year. In the twentieth century, the government attacked those who would not renounce their faith in Jesus.
Hattaway’s graphic stories are replete with accounts not just of cruel torture and death, but of indomitable courage and a refusal to deny Christ, no matter the cost. He does not spare us the gruesome details; these only serve to highlight the faithfulness of Christians and the power of God to sustain his people through suffering to glory.
Missionaries also suffered harsh and sometimes brutal treatment from Han Chinese literati, who feared that the new religion would diminish their cultural and political power. The first China Inland Mission (CIM) worker to be killed was William Fleming, in 1898, the victim of rumors that the foreigners were smuggling weapons to the tribal people in preparation for a revolt against the Chinese government. False stories about missionaries have continued to cause opposition throughout China, down to present day.
The first evangelical missionaries arrived in 1877 with the coming of CIM missionaries Charles Judd and his brother-in-law, James Broumton. Others from the CIM followed them, including George Clarke, “who proved to be a key instrument in bringing the gospel to the unreached minority groups of southwest China. Clarke’s wife was the first foreign woman to live in Guizhou” (36).
The first converts were women reached by CIM workers Charlotte Kerr and Jane Kidd, who had started a school for girls. They established a clinic to help opium addicts break free. These two methods – primary education and opium clinics – joined evangelism and the distribution of Christian literature as primary means for planting churches.
Hattaway does not only tell the stories of intrepid missionaries, but he brings to light the unknown sagas of Chinese Christians, who were by far the more important agents in the growth of Christianity. Chen Xiguang was the first evangelical believer and the first evangelical Chinese pastor. His story and photo remind us of the transforming power of the gospel. At least a dozen other Chinese Christians are memorialized with both words and pictures in this volume.
Though many believers stood firm despite persecution, the Hmu, who were members of the Miao people, stopped being open to the gospel after government soldiers killed many of their tribe in 1900. Thereafter, they were afraid to associate with foreigners.
Hattaway has a great burden for unreached peoples, including those numbering only a few thousand or even less. With obvious love, he tells the story of the remarkable ministry of CIM missionary James Adam to minority groups. As he got to know the Miao better, Adam noticed differences among them. One tribe, the A-Hmao, cherished an ancient legend that they once had a written language and books in that language, but that these had been destroyed. When Adam learned their language and eventually had the New Testament translated for them, their joy was immense. A powerful revival broke out and many became believers. Later, Samuel Pollard produced a translation in a script that was even easier to read and is used even today.
Within a year, Adam, Pollard, and two other missionaries died. The believers were shaken, but the Miao church survived, and now numbers over 500,000.
Later in the book, he tells us about the Ge, the Hmu, the Nosu, the Bouyei, and the Dong – all considered “Miao” by the Chinese government, but each one with a distinct language and culture. In my opinion, the story of the conversion of thousands of Nosu is alone worth the price of this book.
The 1930s
For several decades, missionaries concentrated their efforts upon these triable groups, who were much more receptive than the Han Chinese. Their outreach to Han Chinese centered upon cities. In the early 1930s, however, God began to work among Han Chinese in isolated villages. When CIM missionary Harry Taylor learned of this, he urged missionaries in the capital city of Guiyang to extend their work to villages. The movement to Christ continued to grow, and was greatly enhanced by the visit of the Bethel Band Mission in 1934.
The Holy Spirit worked through these revivalists to convict multitudes of sin, and to confess these, even the most terrible offenses, in the presence of those whom they had offended. People who had been cold-hearted for years were broken in spirit, crying out to God for forgiveness and receiving profound joy and peace. Churches were revived, families reconciled, and many new people brought to faith in Christ.
Another preaching band that made a powerful impact was composed of five men from three different tribes.
Missionaries were among those who suffered when the Communists traveled through Guizhou on the famous Long March in 1934. Rudolf Bosshardt and Arnolis Hayman were captured and forced to accompany the Reds. Though they had to endure great trials, God preserved their lives.
The 1940s
Hattaway candidly records the ups and downs of church growth in Guizhou, noting that sometimes the Christian witness seems to have almost died out.
Faithful Christians labored on, however, including the sisters of the German Friedenshort Deaconess Mission, who quietly lived among the tribes as associated members of the China Inland Mission. They demonstrated the love of Christ through medical ministry and education for the children of the impoverished tribes. Later, they reached out to lepers. Their mission to the tribes came to an end after 1949, but they had made a profound impact.
Meanwhile, Christians among the A-Hmao tribe held fast. They experienced a breakthrough when they decided to attend the large festivals with their fellow tribesmen and share the gospel with them.
In 1940, after he recovered from his ordeal, Rudolph Bosshardt and his wife returned to serve in Guizhou. They preached the gospel faithfully, seeing much fruit, until they were forced to leave China in 1951.
Nothing daunted, they relocated to Laos, where they worked among Chinese until they had to retire. After his wife’s death, Bosshardt emigrated from Sweden to England, where he founded the Manchester Chinese Christian Church.
By 1949, Christians in Guizhou numbered around 100,000, almost a fivefold increase since 1922.
The 1950s and 1960s
When the Communists came to power, they unleashed upon the Miao Christians the worst persecutions in the history of their much-persecuted church. “At this time, with all foreigners removed from Guizhou a black curtain descended, and for many years little or no news emerged from the Christians in the Precious Province” (149–150).
“Thousands of pastors and devoted believers died because they stood firm in their faith. Additional thousands were sent to prison where they suffered various forms of torture, hard labor and starvation” (150–151).
Despite extremely cruel and harsh persecution, the church in Guizhou survived, and even grew. The Word had been planted deeply and could not be rooted out. Scriptures had been widely distributed, were treasured, and were hidden in secret places until the time would come when the Bible could be read openly again.
The 1970s
“By the early 1970s, China had become a place of misery for the masses. . . In the midst of this harsh environment, the Holy Spirit was still at work in Guizhou, drawing men and women with open hearts to Jesus Christ” (155).
In the face of repeated revivals and the bold stand for Christ made by the Miao believers, murderous persecution fell upon them. On one occasion, hundreds were mowed down by army machine guns during a prayer meeting. Others were imprisoned and tortured. Nevertheless, the church continued to grow.
The 1980s
Persecution continued in the early 1980s, but the numbers of Christians among several different tribes also continued to increase. In a new development, evangelists from a large house church network in central China went to Guizhou to share the gospel. Despite danger and even death, they were able to minister with power.
Although the government-sanctioned Three-Self Church had often betrayed Christians, some churches in Guizhou decided to register with the government. In 1987, a government survey counted 100,000 believers in Three-Self congregations. The unregistered churches had about 250,000 adherents at this time.
The church grew by meeting in homes; praying for the sick and seeing many healed; casting out demons; distributing Bibles; showing love by engaging in works of practical help, such as giving money to the poor and building a road; prayer; and zealous evangelism in the face of fierce opposition.
Letters and pictures
From the beginning of the history of Christianity in Guizhou in the late 1800s, photographs illustrate this fast-paced narrative. We see the faces and dress of tribal people, Han Chinese, and foreign missionaries.
Starting with this chapter, Hattaway includes excerpts of letters from Christians in each province that have come to the outside, often to the Far East Broadcasting Company offices in Hong Kong. These letters run the gamut of joyful faith, to confusion about how to behave as a believer, to intense sadness. Many of them express the desperate need for Bibles and for trained teachers of the Word. They paint a picture of the Christians in China that cannot but move the reader.
The photographs and letters form an essential part of Hattaway’s history and are a major strength of the books in this series. The author has searched archives for older pictures, but he has added to these many more taken with his own camera and reflecting his extensive travels.
The 1990s
“Christianity in many areas of Guizhou continued to flourish throughout the 1990s. The decade saw a further softening in attitudes against the Church compared to the brute force used in previous decades, but life continued to be desperately hard for many tribal believers” (180).
Though the Communist Party strictly forbade its members from becoming Christians, this decade witnessed a large number of cadres joining the church. In another change, Han Chinese and members of other, previously unreached and apparently uninterested tribal groups began to turn to Christ.
Government pressure eased a bit during this time, but materialism started to distract people from spiritual things. Tribal Christians who moved to urban centers for better jobs often found it hard to retain their faith.
Nevertheless, by the end of the century, evangelical Christians in Guizhou were estimated to number 300,000 to 400,000, explosive growth since 1987.
The 2000s “Decade of Harvest”
Beginning in the early 2000s, foreign Christians from the United States, Singapore, Malaysia, and other parts of the world began to travel to Guizhou on short-term mission trips. Through the working of the Holy Spirit, these visits often brought the gospel to places that had never before heard about Jesus, or served to revive existing churches.
Foreigners, usually working through interpreters, shared God’s love in various ways: testimonies, teaching, Bible distribution, Christian literature, evangelistic video and audio resources, and gifts of goods and money. Hattaway reports that the Mo, the Ge, the Shui, and the Dong tribes received the good news about Christ for the first time and responded. Again, these stories demonstrate the power of God in the lives of his people when they are obedient to his leading.
At the same time, visitors were themselves blessed. As they witnessed conversions, heard stories of zeal and martyrdom, and listened to the stunning singing of tribal Christian choirs, they experienced God’s goodness in new ways.
These and previous efforts paid off. By 2010, there were about 2.6 million Christians in Guizhou.
The 2010s: “The Church Pushes Back”
The first five years of this decade were relatively calm for Christians in Guizhou, but bitter suffering was not unknown. Hattaway records several instances and tells of how the Christians began to push back by bringing lawsuits against illegal police actions.
In 2016, a storm was unleashed: After new laws against Christianity were enacted in 2015, “China dramatically reversed its policies, and full-scale persecution of house church Christians broke out in many parts of the country, including Guizhou” (214). The authorities demolished church buildings, threatened to deprive believers of their rights to pensions, and brought immense pressure upon church leaders. Pastors and others faced arrest, imprisonment, beating, and torture.
Nevertheless, the church kept growing, as Christians met in homes and in twos and threes. The Horned Miao (so called because their women wear horns on their heads) and the Hmong Shua experienced an amazing influx of new believers, for example.
“The Future of the Church in Guizhou”
No one knows exactly what will happen, but Hattaway believes that the kingdom of God will never cease its advance among the peoples of Guizhou.
While noting significant advances in the past 150 years, Hattaway concludes by saying that “dozens of small tribes remain isolated from the good news, with many groups containing no known Christians at the present time. The Hmu remain the largest unreached people group in Guizhou. . . [Finally,] less than 8 percent of the population professes to be Christians” (224–225).
As in all the other volumes of the China Chronicles, an Appendix at the end includes a county-by-county survey of the province, showing how many professing Christians there are in each region. Hattaway explains that he has used the most rigorous and in-depth research to arrive at his numbers, and considers these appendices to be essential features of each book.
Conclusion
With each installment of the China Chronicles, Paul Hattaway solidifies his position as one of the outstanding scholars of Christianity in China. Though not an academic, he is producing books of high academic value.
Perhaps just as importantly, he writes with clarity, vividness, balance, accuracy, and passion.
G. Wright Doyle
Note: This review was originally posted here on October 27, 2019.
OVERVIEW
A handbook that is as nuanced, socio-historically sensitive and practical as the very culture and people it seeks to affect, Reaching Chinese Worldwide offers principles for effective Christian witness and culturally sensitive involvement in the life of Chinese people.
The author’s goal is to prepare both laypersons and vocational missionaries to best minister the Gospel of Jesus Christ to Chinese people around the world. The primary (though not exclusive) audience of the book is Western Christians who desire to minister to the Chinese, now numbering more than 1.5 billion and increasingly present worldwide. Doyle uses alliterative chapter titles to outline his main points and structure the book, which could similarly be summarized with three other “P” themes he weaves throughout: Past, Prayer, Patience!
Does he achieve his goal through the book? Yes! In fact, this reviewer spent seven years engaging in missionary work in Asia, and would not only have benefited from this book (had it been published) before embarking upon such an endeavor, but would have kept it within reach throughout! Just as the classic What to Expect When You’re Expecting becomes an oft-referenced guide for any first-time parent, this is a trustworthy resource for those attempting to love, and seek the growth of, their Chinese friends in the name of Jesus and have realistic expectations for what that process might look like.
Chapter One is autobiographical in nature, establishing Wright Doyle’s credible and experienced platform from which to speak into matters of ministry to Chinese. Doyle chronicles his and his wife Dori’s years of theological education in seminary, learning language and being mentored in both Singapore and Taiwan, partaking in translation work and founding organizations like China Institute and university fellowships for Chinese. He has surely practiced- and humbly learned by trial and error, and the grace of God – all that he preaches in the chapters to follow.
The next section, “Preliminaries,” helps the reader avoid assumptions and ensure a correct starting point, namely God’s own design and purpose for ministry. Questions such as: “What is the Gospel? How do we see it come to bear on people’s lives? Why the focus on Chinese outreach?” are answered. In response to the last question, Doyle offers three strategic points:
Han Chinese comprise the largest un-evangelized people group in the world.
The Chinese church needs strengthening, particularly in leadership and theological development.
There is incredible potential among the Chinese to expand God’s worldwide kingdom.
Doyle describes the realities of life and politics in China today and current obstacles to Gospel ministry, and in preliminary fashion, cautions his readers to think well and cautiously about how best to engage with the Chinese before beginning outreach.
Chapter Three also anticipates questions such as, ‘How does one start reaching the Chinese?’ (The crucial answer given: prayer!), and ‘Does the “old” method of gospel proclamation still work?’
The author affirms that gospel conversations are crucial, but first one must seriously consider both the culture and consciousness of the people into whose lives they are stepping. This is true of all cross-cultural ministry, but Doyle reminds us that Chinese history, including that of Christianity, is even more complex – and perhaps cherished – than most nationalities and a heightened respect for it is critical. Foreigners should enter in with a humble posture, beginning with long-term language learning and a listening ear before employing a speaking tongue.
The chapter includes a brief history of Christianity in China and an exhortation for ministers of the Gospel to learn from China’s past, both nationally and as related to the church and missionary attempts. Doyle details the current psyche of Chinese society, and among other distinctive elements, identifies the element of hope now apparent in younger generations. He provides encouragement to his readers that God is indeed at work in bringing the very hope of the Gospel to bear on lives.
The next section, Presence, affirms that Chinese men and women are indeed everywhere! We need to reach these men and women with the “whole counsel” of the God whose image they bear. Doyle gives applicable and convicting suggestions to Westerners, such as opening up our family Christmas celebrations to Chinese in our community, sincerely befriending them and again focusing on language learning as perhaps the most genuine way to show care.
An intentional effort to connect Chinese people with other Christians from their own culture is emphasized, as is the value of patient, hard academic work that in fact mirrors that of the industrious Chinese scholars who come to the United States. A helpful distinction (p. 67) of the shift in general modern missions approaches from “friendship to partnership” urges Christians to continue to seek the former with Chinese in order to build trust and unconditionally love them.
Also of note are guidelines for how to do short-term trips (a form of outreach that can be controversial) well and wisely, and some creative and even institutional suggestions for “presence” among the Chinese that build platforms of respect, such as quality efforts in the realm of fine arts.
In Chapters Five and Six, Doyle offers highly practical methods for sowing Gospel seeds, based on what he has learned and observed in his decades of ministry to Chinese. “Part I” describes opportunities to reach Chinese through the growing influence of internet, radio and books, and by telling the stories of Chinese believers’ own legacy of faith. As we introduce Chinese friends to the Word of God, Bible studies should begin with a focus on the Creator God in Genesis, rather than jumping to the Gospel of John, a popular introductory method. Doyle gives tips on preaching a relevant and Biblical evangelistic message, helping the reader understand how to connect the work of Jesus Christ to the “fallen condition” the Chinese tend to experience in categories such as success, family and saving face.
He cautions against feeding into a ‘health and wealth Gospel’ by overly emphasizing the material benefits of a relationship with God to a culture that is highly pragmatic and sometimes opportunistic. Doyle does not entirely dismiss the value of “cold turkey evangelism” and reminded me of the joys of striking up conversations with taxi drivers and market vendors in Asia. He even provides a script of sorts for asking spiritually probing questions during such everyday encounters.
Part II identifies common problematic practices and shows the author’s burden to follow wise and Biblical principles as much as possible. He states that on average, it takes about 3-5 years for Chinese to make a true profession of, and commitment to, Christian faith (87). This is generally the case with most Christian growth, but is even more heightened in the Chinese context, so the lay-minister is again called to extreme patience…and some perseverance, too!
Because both personal and financial associations with foreigners can complicate things for the Chinese, Doyle urges caution among Westerners regarding clandestine missionary activity or taking a stand on the public church or government matters in China. He pushes back on the trend of Chinese church leaders traveling abroad for seminary, which can be costly and disruptive to their local congregations, and instead encourages in-country training whenever possible.
The chapter closes with a brief exploration of spiritual warfare - what it is and is not – and a needed caution against over-interpretation of this element of kingdom work.
The next section continues the call to contextualize the Gospel more carefully and recognize the corporate nature of Asian culture. We are encouraged to enter into the lives of the Chinese well by “dreaming their dreams,” just as we seek to bear their burdens and identify their “pressure points,” or “ways in which modern Chinese society prepares the way for the light, life and love of God as expressed in the Good News” (104).
Pressure points highlighted include family tensions (the legacy of the one-child policy, expectations of in-laws, the struggle for couples to “leave and cleave,” confusion over gender roles and filial piety), economic and vocational pressures (including the mass migration of recent decades), and deep struggles with both personal and cultural shame. Doyle gives a list of wonderfully specific questions to ask a Chinese friend in the arena of science and materialism, which have deeply shaped their worldview. Most of all, he highlights and celebrates how the Good News of Christ speaks to all of these realms!
Chapter Eight builds on “Points of Contact” with an emphasis on “Chinese Religion (1),” laying out the debate over what Mandarin vocabulary to use for the name of “God.” The inclusion of this matter is important, as Chinese Christians themselves differ in opinions and convictions, and as a missionary I also wrestled over which spiritual vocabulary to employ with my Chinese friends. This book presents the arguments on both sides over the use of the Chinese term “Shang Di” or “Shen” as names for God. Doyle weighs in heavily in favor of “Shen,” positing that accurate representation of the Trinity and clarity about the essential nature of Jesus is at stake:
I propose the following compromise to the vexing Term Question: In ordinary conversation, and in some preaching, the name Shang Di may be used some of the time, as long as it is adequately explained according to the full Biblical revelation. But, in most preaching and teaching, and all translations of the Bible, Shen should be employed, as being the most accurate rendering of Elohim (Hebrew) and of Theos (Greek) (121).
This chapter also explores “Ying and Yang,” giving touch points of this ancient Chinese concept with the Gospel, and affirming that some of its complementary pairings like male and female are also found in God’s Word. However, ultimately Doyle asserts that the “Bible presents us with a certain essential dualism, not a fundamental unity of opposites,” and holds to the crucial special revelation Christians receive from God in the Scriptures (123).
Finally, Doyle addresses Daoism as an influential philosophy permeating Asian culture, and gives further guidance on navigating the similarities and differences between the Dao (or way) of Laozi and the Logos (Word) of God as revealed through Christ.
“Chinese Religion (2)” delves further into traditional Chinese religions, noting the influence of the Confucian worldview. Doyle describes it as folly to downplay the impact Confucius has held on Chinese culture and mindset, but cautions against a syncretistic approach that fails to sift Confucianism through a Biblical grid. A familiarity with the Analects (Chichung Huang’s edition, is recommended) and a posture of respect is again strongly advised. This chapter examines the similarities in values (submission, respect, harmony) as well as differences (parental responsibility, male-female relationships, epistemological methods) between Biblical Christianity and Confucianism.
Buddhism, in both its traditional and modern forms, is addressed as another revered Eastern religion with a growing number of adherents, especially in Taiwan. Conversational touch points that may surface tenets-in-common with Buddhist friends include: the fleeting nature of life, an expectation of suffering, pursuit of enlightenment, upholding of moral standards, and reliance on sacred scriptures. Doyle distinguishes the major differences in Christianity, which centers on a closed Biblical canon, a single Creator God, the unique person and work of Christ, and regeneration (instead of reincarnation) as central truths.
Popular (or “folk”) religion is also described as resurgent and influential. It is the form of spirituality most associated with superstition and ancestor worship, especially in rural areas of China. Doyle laments, “in essence, Chinese folk religion is dominated by pragmatism and utilitarianism, not a personal relationship with the Lord of the universe,” but exhorts non-Asian Christians to examine where their own faith may also be tainted by such temporal and material idols (136). He closes this section with both practical and prayer-fueling advice to his readers that includes first seeking our own pure devotion to God, and praying that an all-powerful yet crucified Christ would be the central proclamation of Chinese ministers of the Word.
Chapter Ten turns the corner to discipleship and fostering the involvement of new converts in healthy local church congregations.
Partaking in the sacrament (or ordinance) of baptism and in the Lord’s Supper are Biblically commanded of newly professing Christians, though Doyle is wisely wary of hasty baptisms, offering some “must know” criteria and pointed questions for a new Chinese believer (142). He also recommends membership in Chinese house churches and identifies their advantages, such as resource stewardship, flexibility, intimate size, having a New Testament precedent and direct opportunities for pastoral care, evangelistic momentum, and heightened leadership accountability. However, he gives the caveat that house churches can risk becoming narrow and self-focused.
As God’s kingdom grows among the Chinese, so does the sizable need for capable shepherds and servants to help fulfill the Great Commands and Commission of Jesus. Doyle asserts that Chinese reaching fellow Chinese should be the ultimate goal, and in discipleship one should deeply invest in the few over the many. He echoes the cry that the church in China has a continued scarcity, both in numbers and maturity, of faithful men in their congregations, and perhaps our efforts should focus on them.
I again appreciate Doyle’s humble willingness to express his convictions and give practical and creative ideas for solutions. He invites his readers to think outside the traditional training “box” about how to equip local leaders. He identifies the previously mentioned pros and cons of formal (and sometimes foreign) seminary options, but offers possible alternative.
Life-on-life mentoring and coaching are other strongly felt needs among Chinese pastors and congregants, as it is especially hard for Chinese to “lose face” and express their neediness. This chapter affirms they need mentors who will share lives consistently and transparently.
Finally, the purpose and benefits of counseling are mentioned, and Doyle especially encourages laypeople to seize hold of the opportunity to usher life-change through God’s word, his spirit and his people. Examples for how to specifically apply God’s word to our lives and past wounds are amply provided.
Chapter Eleven heralds the great need of mobilizing the Chinese church itself as the most effective vehicle through which to further God’s kingdom in the East. However, the author affirms the crucial supporting role of Westerners, and echoes the chorus in previous sections of the value of international friendship. Doyle offers creative ideas that his own family practices, such as inviting your local Chinese pastor and his wife over for dinner simply to encourage and bless them.
Further reflecting the Doyles’ own experiences, Taiwan is named as a strategic place and people, as the Taiwanese in turn can often reach Mainlanders more effectively than foreigners. First, the Taiwanese desperately need the truth and hope of Christ amidst their personal crises, political strife and idolatrous culture. Second, the country’s freedom of religion, attunement to the needs of fellow Chinese, and ability to train leaders in much-needed Biblical literacy create great opportunities for ministry. Westerners would be wise to pray for Taiwan, and send resources and laborers to Christian organizations located there.
Lastly, the reality and role of English-speaking Churches in both Asia and America is mentioned. Though involvement in such churches may not be ideal language-wise, God can use them in the lives of Chinese who visit or seek to primarily worship within their walls.
Are we really reaching the Chinese? Are we truly answering the questions they are asking? This chapter upholds the book’s theme of the “priority of listening,” reminding its readers that fundamentally, people want to be heard and understood.
One of the most effective ways foreigners can legally and lovingly listen to the needs of the Chinese is through the established role of English instruction. Teachers have abundant opportunities to build relationships with students, and can surface deeper personal needs and longings through writing assignments and discussion groups. Questionably effective methodologies and rote memorization dominate Asian academics, so foreign teachers have a ripe opportunity to offer something different. Doyle mentions established teaching organizations such as ELIC, and how those called to can best prepare to teach abroad. By this point in the book, it’s familiar advice: read books about China, study Mandarin, and pray!
Next, “Business by the Book” paints a picture of how a Christian in the business sector might set a godly example to the Chinese through honesty, humility and integrity. Those in corporate leadership roles can offer loving principles that are counter-cultural, such as granting a healthy number of days off for Chinese employees. Also addressed is the important and ethical question of how to best honor Chinese law, and the specific tensions of doing so in formal ministry work. Doyle is clear that his organizations choose to operate within the bounds of government parameters, but allows for different convictions in this sticky area – one which all Christian laborers will find themselves wrestling.
Orphans, migrant workers, the crippling effects of past natural disasters and other difficulties abound in the nation of China. Doyle also includes practical exhortation as to how we might emulate Jesus’ own lifestyle of service to our Chinese neighbors by good works in both the long and short-term.
The book closes on a note of assurance and even rest, proclaiming the promise that God is the One who ultimately works in hearts and lives. He kindly invites us to partner with Him!
The main themes of the book are reiterated, reminding those who seek to reach the Chinese (or anyone, really) with the Gospel of Christ that it takes time, it involves hard work and even suffering, and that “showing” is as important – if not more – than telling our audience about God’s goodness and grace.
I appreciated Doyle’s own humble summary of his motives for writing Reaching Chinese Worldwide:
This entire book has been written to earnest people who want to ‘do’ things to honor God by someone who has “done” a lot, much of it in haste and without seeking the Lord’s face or his strength (John 15:7)… All our words and deeds must spring from an intimate relationship with our Lord and Savior, in whom alone do we find life in its fullness. The Director of OMF in Taiwan told us when we arrived that “ ‘the greatest contribution you can make to the Chinese is your experience of the grace of God’ (183).
May it be so in the lives of all who read this book and labor among the Chinese in Christ’s name!
The Resources section is a detailed and exhaustive list of books and Internet resources on the subjects Doyle has addressed, ranging from pastoral ministry and missiology to Chinese history.
Few would have the breadth of theological understanding and depth of practical ministry experience that this author does to speak to reaching Chinese around the world. As usual, Wright Doyle is both highly pastoral and practical, giving bold and detailed advice in a corrective volume, of sorts, on how to avoid mistakes that “lack Biblical warrant or seem patently unwise” by well-intended individuals or organizations seeking to expose Chinese people to the Gospel (85). His tone and content is wise and nuanced, with a posture of humility and allowance for exceptions to his own convictions or observations.
The book gives essential instruction on how to be discerning and have realistic expectations for long-term labors of love. The sending of US workers to China may have passed its hey-day, but the timeless principles Doyle gives are still applicable – whether across the seas or in one’s own backyard – and offered in sincere hopes of blessing the Chinese and glorifying God.
The book would benefit from an eventual updated edition based on renewed “red persecution” (50) of the church in China as of this year (2019).
Review of Li Ma and Jin Li, Surviving the State, Remaking the Church: A Sociological Portrait of Christians in Mainland China. Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2018.
Note: This review was originally published here on May 7, 2019.
It’s widely known that in recent decades, China’s economy, social structures and citizens themselves have undergone unprecedented change, development and upheaval. This is no less true for the Christian church and its members across the vast country. In this volume — essential for anyone seeking to understand the socio-political and historical shifts in China, and their interplay with Christianity — scholars Li Ma and Jin Li investigate numerous factors at play within both the state and church. These include the power of a communist regime versus that of a Christian worldview; the dramatic shift from rural to urban across the country; distinctives of younger generations compared to their elders, who lived through - and survived – the rise to power and evolution of the Communist party; and how Protestant churches in China have diversified and formed their own social identities.
Li Ma and Jin Li are also Christians themselves, and a married couple as well, so the valuable book they give us is more than just a clinical study. As the subtitle reflects, they are not just chronicling complex, contemporary trends (which they do adeptly) but are also painting intimate, purposeful portraits of what such realities have looked like on the ground – and in the lives of – Chinese Christians themselves. To gather data for their observations and conclusions, the authors conducted at least a hundred interviews from their personal networks from 2010-2015, and observed roughly 40 churches and faith-based organizations in various cities. This unique and nuanced approach is necessary, as reliable studies on Christian trends are scarce due to government censored or limited research, and many potential subjects for data have blocked or ignored memories of living under a suppressive regime. Stereotypes about China, and related to Christianity, abound, as do overly simplified sociological studies, so the conscientiousness with which the authors seek to give a holistic and deeper understanding about their subject(s) is most needed.
Over an arc of about seven decades, starting with the Three-Self Campaign of the 1950s up to the present day, the book covers a wide breadth of spheres and topics, from the recruitment efforts of the Chinese Communist Party to the rise of Calvinist theology. Li and Ma follow the thread of the “basic tension between the always-present state and local churches” (17), with the twelve chapters roughly building chronologically. Below you will find a synopsis of each chapter, though the authors also provide a helpful and concise “conclusion” section at the end of each chapter in their book.
The particular burden of these authors is apparent, as they hold out to the reader stories of brothers and sisters in the faith that many have longed to hear. The tone of their writing can at times be prophetic, offering both lament and hope for and to the church in China, and beyond. In their own words:
“In these pages, you will meet real people in their unique political contexts where the Christian faith reshapes the habits of the heart. Out of these changes antithetical actions and even pioneering institutions sometimes spring up. It is our hope you will be both amazed and touched by their humanity” (xvi).
It is no secret – and confirms Jesus’ own teaching – that the testing of Christ-followers through periods of persecution is inevitable, and can even reap a great spiritual harvest, both individually and for the growth of the church. In their first chapter, Li and Ma chronicle the effect of the rise of the Communist ideology and regime on both the public and private realities of Protestantism in China.
Prior to 1949, when the Communist revolution triumphed, Christianity could be witnessed in the forms of public expressions of faith, growing Christian universities and hospitals, and missionary activity, to name a few. From the 1950s to 1970s, however, in pursuit of a new social order and unfailing allegiance to its own values, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) included Christianity as a target in its calculated efforts to eradicate from the country any loyalties to anything – or anyone – besides the state. Social trust and interpersonal networks were undermined as suspicions about foreign influence and “Western” religions arose, causing even parents to be afraid of sharing the Gospel with their own children, for fear of being labeled “counterrevolutionary.” Because so much was lost –even literally -- in the turbulence of those decades, “stories of imprisoned Christians under the...regime were seldom told: they were forbidden and became forgotten (3).” In this chapter, Li and Ma do, however, unearth and unfold the compelling story of 84-year old medical doctor Yuan’s conversion, and subsequent imprisonment for ten grueling years due to his faith and identification with Watchman Nee’s “Little Flock” congregation. They also introduce us to sisters and brothers like the perseverant Professor Xu, a member of the more recently targeted Shouwang church, whose numerous detentions and even imprisonments God redemptively used to strengthen his faith and expand his witness to others.
The chapter poignantly and rightfully concludes with the observation that “the harshest means of persecution under communism…have often produced results counter-productive to the Party’s intention” (13) and indeed purified the church and it’s members’ loyalties. The authors also make the important observation that the CCP’s efforts effectively drove the church underground through shifting the freedoms and forms of China’s public spaces, and by deeply destroying social norms of trust.
The degrees to which the absolutist and atheistic ideology of Communism have affected the mindset and social fabric both of the general Chinese population, and specifically Chinese Christians, over the last several decades are thoroughly explored in this chapter. The level of control the CCP enforced over all social relationships cannot be underemphasized, and here our authors investigate how the regime capitalized on psychological fear as a means of political power through enforcing “a system of exclusion and violence” in which shame tactics, spying and secret police among communities became normative. The CCP employed organizational means to isolate and control the people of China: borders were sealed, the labor force divided into work units to track citizens and monitor their party loyalties, and family members even pressed to turn on one another if loyalties to the state were at risk of being compromised.
Though the Chinese mindset – and the very postures of trust –were deeply altered in the 1950s and 1960s by a ruling force with dictator Chairman Mao at the helm, this section reminds its readers of a Christian worldview – with Jesus at the helm – that has shone in the midst of such darkness and offered both substantive comfort and conviction to Chinese believers. Whereas “communism exerts control on individual’s minds and hearts through external means of violence, Christianity reforms individuals from the inside out” (29). As evidence, Li and Ma share the powerful story of Dr. Zhang, who was dramatically converted during the height of Mao-worship, and who was wooed to the Biblical God of justice and truth in a cultural and historical time of great injustice and deception. Dr. Zhang’s growth in the Gospel was catalyzed by the spiritual discipleship of Pastor Liu, also documented in this chapter as yet another brother imprisoned for nearly two decades for his faith. The book’s continued theme of the strong tie between conversion and suffering again weaves through this chapter, as it’s noted that the politically marginalized or punished were often the most fertile soil for seeds of faith to take root. The chapter closes with the affirmation that “the holistic worldview of the Christian faith gives shelter to Chinese converts as a sacred soul-sustaining canopy” (30).
Also of note in this chapter is some history on the availability of the Bible within China and the varied attempts at smuggling Scriptures into the country.
Chapter Three builds on the preceding chapter by further diagnosing the effects of Communist ideology, including the infamous event of the Tiananmen crackdown of 1989, on the modern Chinese psyche. Though the event itself, and surrounding details, were actively censored by the Chinese media in the decades following, this chapter answers important questions about its impact on those who lived through it, and speculates on the disillusionment to come for younger generations who have – or will soon- gradually pieced the details of it together.
In the midst of a horrific event like Tiananmen, it can be hard to discern what specific good God might perhaps bring from evil. But our authors posit – and confirm with testimonies and cultural evidence – that “the most profound consequence of the Tiananmen crackdown was a widespread spiritual and moral crisis, as the CCP’s moral authority collapsed” (32). In the decade following, most Chinese found themselves in the midst of a deep spiritual crisis, and all sorts of religious sects and forms grew dramatically, including Protestantism, which saw many mass conversions. One of several powerful stories told in this chapter is that of 60 year-old “Huang,” a formerly zealous Maoist whose confidence in the Party started to unravel when he witnessed discord among its members and a lack of cohesive morality in its practices. But it wasn't until after the violent at crackdown at Tiananmen Square that Huang decided to “find a religion” and eventually was baptized through a Three Self church. In this chapter we also meet “Fang,” whose search for justice following the Tiananmen loss of life led him to the Christian God. Other Chinese citizens who traveled abroad to work and study after the 1989 incident also became converted, their faith journey following a similar pattern of distrust and disillusionment followed by a quest for truth. Though plenty of Chinese responded to the turbulence of the times, and the ideology of the party, with a posture of opportunism or survival-ism (which often manifests as pragmatism, rather than true philosophical allegiance), the interviewees in this chapter testify that the Christian gospel enabled them and many others to embrace forgiveness, to worship of God over any earthly power, and to a Biblical and transcendent understanding of true justice.
The chapter ends with the astute observation that “by the early 1990s, home groups had been sprouting up across China, and the ethical teachings of peace-making and self-giving love represented by close knit house-church groups appealed to people who had seen too much darkness and hopelessness in society” (49). The influence of such groups is further explored in subsequent chapters.
As many Chinese found themselves fleeing to Christ, or at least were more open spiritually, in the wake of the Cultural Revolution, Tiananmen, and the unraveling social fabric of the late 20th Century, the church’s challenge of helping new Christ followers to grow into maturity became significant, especially in a culture where church activity remained covert. In Chapter Four, Li and Ma posit a void of quality discipleship and accessible church membership as a consequence of well intended but incomplete missionary practices, constant state surveillance and limited resources for pastors and leaders. The 1980s brought a renewed effort by outsiders to get Bibles into the mainland, but there were still a sparse number relative to the rising Christian population. Due to many of these factors, the authors describe the converts of the 1980s and 1990s as “a generation of spiritual orphans left to grow up by themselves” (51).
International para-church ministries such as Campus Crusade for Christ employed undercover and highly original strategies necessarily much different from the ones employed by missionaries of the early 20th Century, and sowed a lot of spiritual seeds, especially among University students (and often at “safer” western locations like McDonalds or Starbucks, as the authors interestingly note!) during a time when local churches were not reaching out to such an audience. However, the fellowship groups they spawned often suffered a lack of access to local churches, deeper Biblical teaching on the Old Testament and a holistic Christian worldview, or consistent enough relationships to mentor new believers over the long haul. The stories of “Ying” and “Sun” reflect such campus conversions and their related challenges, especially after graduation. “Pastor Bao’s” interview with Li and Ma both confirms the fruit of such campus ministry, while acknowledging the struggle to truly be rooted in both God’s Word and solid fellowship after initial professions of faith. To shepherd his local flock more fully, Pastor Bao has sought to delve into Christian theology, history and the rapidly expanding Christian publishing industry in China to create a more solid focus on discipleship and church life for his sheep. Other pastors fall prey to face-saving or lack of leadership accountability, since their churches often function independently as silos, or struggle to have a robust enough theology or preaching emphasis to meet the needs of urban elites such as Christian professors of economics and philosophy, and artists.
As they conclude, the authors sufficiently diagnose the mixed legacy left by foreign Christians, and rightly lament the “lonely and truncated journey [of many younger converts]…and the lack of connection and unity among urban congregations,” (64) which they discuss further in the next chapter.
A tale of two cities – and church distinctives – is indeed told in this section, as fascinating contrasts are drawn between the inland, “teahouse culture” city of Chengdu and the coastal, cosmopolitan Shanghai. One would presume increasing marketization in China since 1978 would mean an economic and international powerhouse like Shanghai might be among the most “open” or public in terms of its local congregations and unregistered churches. Surprisingly, the authors observe that historical and socio-political influences of each city, combined with differing postures of local authorities, have in fact contributed to a greater degree of secrecy and a more closed approach among Shanghai churches.
Li and Ma explain that in 1952, now-frenetic Shanghai was the locale of the first meeting of the Three Self Patriotic Movement. Roman Catholics and Protestants largely resisted and therefore went underground in the city from the 1950’s through 1980s (and beyond). Shanghai’s church scene has also been influenced by a network of United Prayer Fellowship groups having a strong presence, and also by the legacy of Watchman Nee’s Little Flock. Chengdu, the more laid-back capital of Sichuan province in the west, has historically been a hub of foreign missionary activity, including serving as a base of China Inland Mission to reach ethnic minorities. The city itself has always had more liberal- leaning tendencies and a greater value of freedom of speech (insofar as it is ever practiced in the country. The tragic 2008 Sichuan earthquake also brought an influx of religious relief workers who were largely welcomed, and who experienced more respect and freedom from local authorities.
Chapter Five provides a helpful comparison chart (p. 68) of further contextual factors that are true for Shanghai and Chengdu, and can be summarized as follows: Shanghai churches tend to be more leader-reliant, pietistic, and retain a “conflict-perspective” on the state due to high-level party surveillance within the city limits; Chengdu believers generally experience a greater level of tolerance by - and even symbiotic relationship with - the local authorities due to medium party surveillance efforts, and it’s churches are also marked by more socially diversified and public gatherings.
The question of “to hide or not to hide,” and how such answers are defined in the case study of the Shanghai and Chengdu churches, is what the authors use their fieldwork to focus on in the second half of the chapter. They helpfully identify the following factors at play among both cities’ “organizational resources” as determinative for the degree of privacy they seek: leadership, as the “leader’s opinions regarding the church-state relationship strongly influence how the group [decides] about whether they should split into smaller groups or worship outdoors after a government eviction” (72); spatial resources, since owning a space is a turning point for a congregation in terms of consistent worship; inter-group dynamics, meaning the networks at play in each city and questions of ordination, membership-fluidity and the saving-face issue of “sheep-stealing” of members; theological, as a church’s theology affects how it is organized and how much it pursues social activism as an application of faith; and finally political-cultural norms, which are embedded in particular political contexts and which church leaders often interpret, thereby setting the tone for their congregations.
On one level, this section exposes basic questions facing any congregation or church leader: How will we organize? How large do we want our congregation to grow? How open will we be to outsiders? But, as the examples of Shanghai and Chengdu prove, churches must answer these in an extremely intensified and complicated context in China, where persecution of the local church from the state is both a historic and current reality.
Most of us outside China’s borders – and many within - wonder to what degree the Communist Party currently exerts power over different spheres of governance and society. The reality and significance of the party pose particularly complex questions for Chinese believers. Chapter Six begins to provide answers for questions such as: What degree of influence does the CCP still hold? Why has CCP membership been on the rise? Can – and should – one leave the Party after becoming a Christian? Is CCP membership compatible with following Christ? Can Communists become Christians?
China is becoming an increasingly pluralistic society with the emergence of a private economy, and though religious diversity has grown, somewhat counter-intuitively so has the number of CCP members. Authors Li and Ma point out that this is largely because post-Tiananmen, even with their moral credibility eroded, the country’s leadership strategically provided more opportunities for political officials to establish symbiotic relationships with economic elites. And though fewer than ever Chinese are loyal to the actual ideologies of the Party, its organizational structures and career opportunities continue to hold great appeal because of the practical benefits of membership. The CCP still highly controls media, the military and universities, aggressively recruiting undergraduates and offering hard-to-resist economic and political benefits for those who join. The Party is extremely difficult to leave, as testified by one of the interviewees in this chapter, Professor Liu, and some have even faced imprisonment for doing so.
Li and Ma have described the frequency with which college students come to Christian faith, and here point out that undergraduate believers face particular pressure as to whether to submit to the party’s authority. From the interviews described in this chapter, we see that even older believers differ on a conscience and conviction level about aligning with the CCP, some seeking a “positive association between economic success and the spread of Christianity,” (88) but others viewing it as a political religion, accusing Christian Communist Party members of capitulating to religious syncretism. A current statistic demonstrates that 84% of CCP members do have religious beliefs. However, the authors reference a revealing article, entitled “If Party Member’s Religious Conversions Went On Unchecked There Would be Dire Consequences” (helpfully included in the appendix) which clarifies where loyalties must ultimately lie: “Chinese citizens have freedom of religious beliefs, but Party members are not common citizens; they are pioneering fighters in the vanguard for a communist consciousness; they are firm Marxists and also atheists” (184). That statement, and the chapter as a whole, was sobering to this reviewer as it captured the depths of allegiance demanded by the CCP, and how directly it confirms Jesus Christ’s own teachings that “no one can serve two masters” (Matt 6:24).
The next section builds on the last, taking a deeper look at nationalistic beliefs in modern China, especially as Xi Jinping’s administration has renewed efforts to guard and even improve upon nationalistic fervor as globalization and technology have opened up the country to the world at large. The 2008 Beijing Olympics are cited as a good example of “a catalyst for an upsurge in nationalism,” (104). The authors state that the common allure of nationalism is that it can swallow up smaller socio-cultural identities, especially as the country gradually becomes more pluralistic. Xi also upholds a longstanding suspicion towards Western Imperialism. State-led campaigns have preferred the word “nationalistic-patriotism” to describe the thrust of their policies and government propaganda has a prominent influence in schools, using test taking as a form of indoctrination, or limiting the topics for theses that graduate students may investigate.
The chapter clarifies that the Chinese demographic still largely buying into patriotism are generally 50-60s somethings, rural citizens, or military or public works laborers. The authors also accurately identify urbanization and age as predominant factors informing nationalistic tendencies in Chinese citizens, with Christian young professionals particularly on guard against the state’s manipulation of nationalistic emotions. They cite the example of a believer called “Huang,” who upon returning home for Spring Festival found it hard to stomach that his Christian family – and even local church -- still subscribed to the nationalistic worship heralded on CCTV and other state-led programming. He laments, “there is still an insurmountable barrier between their faith and their understanding of state-idolatry” (97).
The church at large, though, has demonstrated a blurred response to the nationalistic zeal of their country. Li and Ma describe the eschatological and global missions movement, “Back to Jerusalem,” which, starting in the 1920s, and renewed in the 1990s, has been embraced by many Chinese, and posits that their churches will bring the Gospel full circle back to the Middle East via the Silk Road. Another example of these “grand narratives [which] appeal to the typical aesthetic and imagination of the Chinese,” and marry a sense of historical experience to a sense of importance, is the popularity of “Xiaomin,” a rural hymn writer with a China-centric revival mentality.
Li and Ma end this chapter with the hopeful declaration that Christian ethics do indeed provide an antidote to pervasive nationalist sentiments, or sensitive historical issues such as forgiveness towards Japan. Christ empowers his followers to love God above all and counter the culture idolatry of patriotism, to seek the universality of churches across boundaries, to dissolve grudges and mirror His own pursuit of harmony over violence.
The proper response to the Biblical call on Christians to “learn to do good; seek justice; correct oppression” (Isaiah 1:17) is particularly complicated in China. Many of the external (state restrictions) and internal (heart issues, poor theology in churches) challenges to “doing good” by the church in society are explored in Chapter Eight. Surviving the State, Remaking the Church describes the rapidly growing grey sector in Asia, but notes that since 2008 there have also been significantly more regulations placed on NGOs by the Chinese government. In general, there is also a large degree of suspicion among average citizens toward any social efforts that are not government sponsored or controlled.
This chapter notes that the tragedy of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake did ignite many house churches to respond and prompted many faith conversions (see Chapter Five’s commentary on Chengdu), but also brought a few lamentable instances of Christian workers using patronizing attitudes, manipulation or even favoritism in the name of spreading of Gospel seeds. Due to their pietistic and separationist theology,that holds a secular- spiritual split regarding believers’ degree of engagement with the world, some church pastors wrongly view professional charity workers as those subscribing to more of a social gospel. Years of marginalization or persecution have led some churches to lack confidence that they might change anything in society.
Some of the interviewees in this chapter gave powerful reflections, expressed in some of my favorite quotes in the book , about how they personally have navigated state and faith issues in regard to vocational callings in the realm of social service. Thirty-two year-old “Zhao’s” story is told as an example a move “from activism to faith” in one long involved with an NGO helping migrant families. When Zhao came to faith in the midst of his labors, he realized his self-righteousness in helping others. The Gospel changed his approach, proving to him that social change has to start in people’s hearts, including his own. The reflections of “Feng,” a former international-consultant-turned-NGO-worker to minorities in the remote province of Yunnan, also attest to his growth in vocational humility as he has come to know the living Christ:
“I find myself facing two Goliaths. One is a [political] system that does not welcome you and even stops you. The other is the massive group of people you are trying to help. I see their needs as well as their weaknesses…and in between these two giants, I see myself, a weak and broken sinner. Faith in God shows my motivations and my brokenness more clearly” (114).
Li and Ma interpret such change in perspective: “the Christian faith does not provide them with a haven to which they may escape; rather, it gives them a microscope to see reality more soberly without being disheartened” (114). This chapter reminds its readers of the need for such wise and persevering laborers as Zhao and Feng in the midst of a culture and country characterized by much brokenness amidst its progress.
Though most typical Chinese Christians would identify themselves as “evangelical,” the last couple decades have seen an emergence of Calvinism in the theology of Chinese churches, especially in urban centers like Wenzhou, Beijing and Chengdu, and in this chapter, the authors adeptly explore some of the reasons behind such theological shifts.
The nation has a missionary history of Calvinists, but such influences were diminished in the 1950s with rise of Communism. It was actually the sphere of academia that first reintroduced John Calvin and his tenets in the 1980s, when scholars debated its influence in shaping western capitalism through dissecting and digesting writings such as Weber’s Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism. Augustine’s City of God and Confessions were also translated and introduced into fields of literature and political theory. Beijing professor of philosophy “Song” translated and distributed Calvin’s Institutes, further spreading its influence. Equipped with training in legal matters, lawyers-turned-ministers also helped Christians use such theological resources to respond better to social issues.
However, some Christian proponents of classical liberalism “have a natural aversion to institutionalized things, such as church gatherings. Many agree with John Calvin but see Calvinism as problematic.” (125). Others find its emphasis on God’s sovereignty and limits to human freedom worrisome.Some church leaders positively valued this resurgence of Calvinism as a needed counterbalance to rising Pentecostal activity during the late nineties.
Li and Ma identify several characteristics of Calvinist-influenced churches, such as an interest in democratization, constitutional rights and social justice. Many worship services have a more formal liturgy because of the corporate emphasis of reformed theology. Calvinistic churches tend to value Christian education and creedal formation, and find comfort in a doctrinal emphasis of grace that frees them from reliance on self-justification . Such Gospel truths “come like refreshing waters to thousands of Chinese pastors, most of whom labor under a heavy burden of expectations they place upon themselves and that others place upon them” (128).
In China, Calvinism is more about establishing a comprehensive and cohesive worldview rather than advancing the finer points of the reformed tenets of “TULIP,” again, somewhat in reaction to the historical focus of pietistic theology on the individual, a view that fails to connect dots to real life for many believers.
This chapter also discusses leadership structures informed by generational differences in Chinese culture. Interviewees talk about Calvinism offering a form of presbyterian governance attractive for providing checks and balances on one church leader’s personality or use of power, especially as their country has a complicated history of dictatorial rule. In general, younger leaders tend to favor a more committee-centric and open church leadership structure, whereas older members, who grew up under the height of an authoritarian culture influence and whose more individualistic faith helped them survive persecution, prefer a traditional family rule model. On the other hand, when schisms happen in churches, some traditional leaders are quick to blame Calvinism for undermining their authority.
The authors’ research also helpfully touches on the issue of women in leadership (pp.130-131), and how the already challenging topic is complicated due to the imbalance of women to men in Chinese churches (as opposed to the over-representation of males in the general population), and the tension of working out the ideals of theological convictions about the role of women in a real, and complicated, context.
As with all things placed in the hands of sinful man (and woman), there can be negative uses - or abuses – of Calvinistic teachings in Chinese churches. Prideful attitudes of “spiritual superiority” can be adopted by those who allow theological fine points to become paramount over the Gospel, or let disputes about infant baptism or predestination prevail. This section mentions sister “Yin’s” damaging experiences in her house church, “which became a place where everyone debated with everyone else, and we wounded each other with argumentative words and attitudes” (132).
The chapter ends on a hopeful note, however, recognizing the health that can come to Chinese churches with a God-centered, rather than man-centered, focus as these new waves of reformed teachings continue to influence both doctrine and practice. But as Yin’s story makes clear, and Li and Ma summarize well, “first generation Calvinist churches also face the tremendous internal challenges of integrating life with doctrine and love with order” (134).
While living in Shanghai for seven years, I witnessed firsthand the unique challenges facing both singles and married Christians in China. This section of the book names such struggles and again gives a detailed analysis of the socio-cultural and historical factors at play in the realm of relationships between men and women – and families at large. The authors explore the effect of the 1979 One Child Policy and, as was noted in the prior chapter, how the church manifests a female-dominant gender imbalance quite opposite from the culture at large. The marriage scene can be difficult to navigate in any culture, but in China, “finding a Christian mate and building a biblical marriage has become the most urgently needed ministry among young urban Christians.” Increased demands for marital counseling are further proof of the challenge.
Particularly interesting is how Li and Ma document the dramatic change in marital expectations and values over a handful of decades. Chinese born in the 1950s placed the highest importance on political associations and the family’s class ranking, with relatives often functioning as matchmakers. By the 1980s, career choices, income and level of education were top priorities. The shift towards consumerism and personal fulfillment became apparent by the 1990s, when owning apartments and automobiles became top rated values in searching for a mate. Christians are not always immune from such worldly temptations, as one interviewee laments: “Unbelieving women usually look at your career and wealth, but many Christian sisters ask for even more – similar secular expectations and your spirituality! Even if a girl does not value these, her parents will push her in this direction” (138).
This sort of parental pressure cannot be underestimated, especially for singles who risk bringing shame or dishonor upon their parents by not eventually marrying or bearing children. Cultural celebrations such as Spring Festival or wedding ceremonies themselves are particularly thorny for Christ followers due to the aforementioned pressure to marry, a heightened emphasis on “earning face” or flaunting wealth, ancestor worship and superstitions within families. This chapter includes some accounts of courageous Chinese couples who saw their wedding as an opportunity to point their relatives to Christ, even after parents had adamantly opposed their proposed union with a Christian or desire to get married within a church building.
Weddings are only the beginning of such friction, as the Biblical call to “leave and cleave” is not easily lived out amidst traditional family culture in China, nor once a couple has a child. Chapter 10 includes heart-breaking stories such as that of “Yue” and “Chao,” who faced enormous pressure from their parents to abort their first pregnancy when birth defects were diagnosed in the baby, who was still rejected by its grandparents upon birth. Grandparents expect to take an active and honorable role in primary care for infants and growing grandchildren, so Christian mothers who decide to give up vocational pursuits or income to stay home with their children for a season – or even breastfeed!— can face immense opposition.
Woven throughout this chapter are instances of the church seeking to support and shepherd its members as they navigate Christian relationships in a very counter-cultural fashion. Shining instances of ministry are noted, such as Yue and Chao’s local house church setting up a benevolence fund for their frail baby, or a pastor urging a gracious response of renewed fellowship to a repentant couple who had fallen into sexual sin. The need for discipline is also recognized, however. “In a social environment where cohabitations and abortions abound, many urban churches impose strict checks on these behaviors,” (140) including possibly being banned from communion.
The next section of the book further explores the challenges facing Christian families as they seek to “survive the state.” Once children reach school age, parents face the decision whether to enroll them in state-monopolized schools, where atheistic and socialist ideas continue to dominate the curriculum and overall educational environment. However, greater economic freedoms since the nineties and the rising demand of middle-class families to provide elite opportunities for their children mean that even the school system has been marked by inequality issues such as fees, bribery and corruption by school administrators and teachers. Li and Ma state that, “even good public schools in China now enjoy the reputation of being pricy, politically stifling and staffed by demoralized teachers” (151).
This chapter paints a portrait of school life for children across China . The typical mainland elementary student would be expected to wear a red scarf, sing “red songs” daily and even join the Youth Pioneers of China as early as first grade. Along with state propaganda, the educational system is rife with academic competition, long school days, a heavy reliance on rote memorization and little development of critical thinking skills or fostering of creativity. Unfortunately, these factors are only heightened as students move up the educational ladder, with one professor quoted as saying he regrets being part of the system, and “seeing the lively faces of first year college students turning into dull, disengaged graduates” (153).
Because the educational system is test-driven, and student achievement is linked to teacher salaries and bonuses, bribery and favoritism are other stark realities hard to avoid even for well meaning teachers. It is no wonder that more and more Christians and non-Christian families are looking for different options for their children. Many large cities in the mainland have international schools, but these come with a large price tag and often require foreign passports for enrollment. There are some Chinese private schools for younger students, but they tend to be quite small and the government can be wary of them.
For those Christians who decide to endure the public school system, most recognize how formative the home environment is, and how crucial the need to instill a Biblical worldview in children early on. A revealing interview with “Mu,” who became a Christian while in high school, shortly after his parents converted, demonstrates this. Having to navigate an atheistic and materialistic culture while growing in his own Biblical convictions actually tested and strengthened Mu’s faith, though he realizes that may have not been the case for everyone. He admits, “the earlier a child is taught Christian values and worldview, the better; the more complete and comprehensive the worldview is taught, the better” (158).
Such a cry for shaping the next generation’s minds with God’s truths has, not surprisingly, led many families and churches to begin their own educational endeavors. Unregistered church-based and mini-schools are on the rise, and many newer churches have the vision of someday hosting a school open to their local members. Such schools often lack fully qualified teachers or developed curriculum, struggle through financial limitations and fear shutdown by the government, but most parents and educators are both convicted and committed enough to persevere. Home-schooling families are also growing in number, with about 10,000 estimated currently.
An interview with educator “Liang” ends this chapter with a vision for more than the narrow and expensive option of sending Chinese students abroad once they are of college age. The challenge to establish Christian-influenced educational choices through not just the elementary and secondary levels, but up to the upper levels of academia also provides an exciting opportunity: to establish indigenous Christian colleges in a country that formerly only knew them as foreign-missionary-led in the early 1900s. Li and Ma share a brief and interesting history of Christian colleges in the mainland in this section, and recognize a chance to do better moving forward. Christian urbanites are both empowered and financially able to see this dream become a reality, though as educator Liang puts it, “since we are building something organic in China’s own soil, we need to be patient, like gardeners” (162).
Many Christians outside the mainland often wonder about the Three-Self churches in China that they hear about. What are they? How do state run churches work? Are they legitimately Christian? Are they viewed positively? This final chapter of Surviving the State, Remaking the Church provides a helpful exploration of the topic, and, as usual, a mix of answers. The last decade has indeed witnessed Xi Jinping’s administration tighten controls country wide, including pressure on religions to sinicize and heightened measures against foreign influences. The sometimes forcible removal of hundreds (and perhaps thousands, since 2014) of crosses atop state-sanctioned churches in Zhejiang province is the example--and also the image used on the cover of their book--the authors again hold up to show how tenuous the relationship between church and state has become in recent years.
The Chinese government still appoints leaders and controls the actions of the Three Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM) and the “China Christian Council,” an organization intended to promote socialist allegiances. Local pastors and the political culture of each city still greatly shape the freedoms and decisions of each Three Self congregation, however. There are eighteen Three-Self seminaries in the country, and they tend to recruit young, less educated students who’ve been vetted with thorough political screening. Some Christians like “Bian,” who has served in both house and state-run churches, thinks pitting the two against one another is unhelpful as they are not rivals, but exist under “government imposed categories.” Many Three-Self clergy themselves seem wary of its state-prescribed theology and administration. TPSM churches have grown in attendees since the 1990s, though many outside of Christian networks seem unaware of the differences between them and underground gatherings.
Grace Church in Wuhan is a Three-self church with a vibrant, growing group of believers with an outreach focus, operating within local and national boundaries and building generally positive relationships with officials and businesses in the area. The lines in cities like Wuhan are more blurred, whereas the differences between house churches and state-run are more distinct in cities like Beijing and Shanghai, or may become heightened during seasons of increased surveillance or persecution by local authorities. Grace Church baptizes up to 300-400 converts a year, but female Pastor Hong invests deeply in personal discipleship, being burdened by how many new Christians think baptism is an “end achievement of Christian identity” (p. 170) rather than the very beginning of it. Grace Church and its leadership challenge many of the traditional stereotypes of Three Self congregations.
Not every pastor has the stamina or calling of Pastor Hong to remain preaching and shepherding within state boundaries, however. Some find the Three-self seminary training they received to have been theologically insufficient to fulfill the ministry demands of their congregations. Others feel anxious working under the state when they have strong and often risky connections to local house churches and colleagues. Others like female clergy “Xue” simply bristle at having to submit to the authority of those clearly not led by the Holy Spirit or the Bible. This results in some pastors eventually leaving the TPSM to start their own unregistered fellowships, though these also create their own stressors.
As they end this chapter, Li and Ma express a growing uncertainty as to how political authorities will deal with churches in the future in an environment of increased repression, and with Christianity posingg a bigger threat to nationalistic identity. Their caution is warranted, for at the time of this review in the spring of 2019, there have been recent and heightened waves of persecution toward both Three-self and house churches across the vast country.
Surviving the State, Remaking the Church is an extremely eye-opening and encouraging contribution to studies on modern China and a generous contribution to the universal church as well. In specifically defining the uniqueness of the Chinese church and what it has endured – or perhaps more so what God has preserved it through – it gives powerful and public voices “for all the saints” who have staked their lives on the Gospel through the turbulence of the cultural revolution and Mao era, the progress and temptations of an increasingly consumerist-materialist society, and the lamentable breakdown of shared social fabric in China in recent decades.
On a personal note, Li and Ma’s studies and interviews resonated powerfully with my own experiences as a foreigner living with and among Chinese believers in Shanghai from 2006-2012. I witnessed many of these realities and tensions of the modern and largely underground church play out anecdotally, but this volume provides the historical-social context – and the needed perspectives of insiders – to give me or any reader a more comprehensive and culturally insightful picture of Christian citizens in China.
Zen-Existentialism : The Spiritual Decline of the West (Chang Lit-sen). Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2010. Previously published by Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing, Co., 1969.
This review was originally published on the Global China Center website on November 25, 2019. https://www.globalchinacenter.org/analysis/zen-existentialism It is reposted here as part of a weekly series to highlight relevant and contemporary topics.
“Modern man is as a sheep without a shepherd, caught in the throes of anxiety and despair… Zen and existentialism are but a sort of philosophy of meaninglessness and voidness, of nihility and frustration; they are absolutely devoid of any positive prospect or future.” Once a believer in Eastern religions, the author and Chinese scholar Lit-sen Chang turned from his old faith and embraced Christianity. He writes this work post conversion to persuade Westerners in particular to reject the folly of Eastern religions in favor of the Christian gospel.
In the introduction, Chang lays out the dire stakes of the current Western philosophical state of mind. He points out that the all of the West is in a state of high anxiety and tension that periodically erupts into violence. Citing Dutch theologian Abraham Kuyper, Chang suggests that the problem began with the French Revolution and has grown and worsened ever since. He identifies Western philosophers’ movement away from Christianity and towards the ideas and practices of Zen-Buddhism both in their use of drugs and in their affirmation that suffering is the true state of the world. Chang traces the root of all cultural crises to the rejection of the true God, just as the problems of the Middle East lie in their choosing Islam rather than Christianity. Writing in the 1960s, he saw a parallel situation in the West’s current fascination with Zen-Buddhism.
Zen came into existence in India and developed further in China and Japan, where it divided into the northern and southern sects. It finally reached the West as a uniquely Asian philosophy. After reviewing Zen’s origins, Chang discusses the etymological history of the word “Zen,” which has its roots in Sanskrit, later influenced by Chinese before reaching its final, Japanese pronunciation.
It is purposefully difficult to understand the exact definition of Zen. Chang offers five possible categories for Zen: Is it philosophy, religion, Buddhism, Taoism, or atheism? He rejects the first three and defers the question between the last two possibilities for later chapters. Finally, he identifies Zen’s specifically destructive and rebellious attitude towards language, reason, and authority.
Zen rejects the power of the word, so it has no doctrinal teachings. It depends entirely on the example of masters. Early Zen had competing schools: the gradual school and the abrupt or instantaneous school, which disagreed about the process of enlightenment. The gradual school has now ceased to exist, so enlightenment is understood without contest as abrupt and unpredictable.
Chang describes the pathway to enlightenment as starting in the mind before moving on to the rejection of duality and ego, until it reaches the reality of unconsciousness. He also refers to unconsciousness as emptiness or voidness. This makes Zen discipline a means of breaking all forms of bondage, because attachment hinders the mind. Once the disciple arrives at unconsciousness or voidness, the final state of Zen is nothing—neither delusion nor enlightenment. All problems are solved because they no longer exist.
Later in the chapter, Chang quotes several masters on what the practice of enlightenment involves. The goal is to transcend a sense of differentiation in the universe by disciplining your mind; it is often misinterpreted as involving mostly meditation. Properly understood, enlightenment is “exertion without interruption,” which requires keeping the mind completely focused on the question of enlightenment no matter what the body is engaged in doing. One method for this involves “cones,” which were developed in the Sung dynasty. Cones are thought exercises designed to break down the logical thinking of students who meditate on them. The student contemplates impossible demands or questions until he can ascend past logic in his mind. Examples include: “talk without tongue,” “play a stringless lute,” “clap with one hand.” This process is supposed to strengthen the will while concentrating the mind, so that the student can accept the unlimited spontaneity of life.
The experience of Zen is paradoxical because, from the outside, it appears to be focused on ordinary life. Disciples engage in basic, menial tasks, answering their most fundamental needs without restrictions: e.g. sleep when sleepy, eat when hungry, and nothing else takes precedence. From the internal perspective, Zen disciples must endure mental, emotional, and physical abuse from their masters, however. One man had his leg broken in order to receive insight into the life principle. The masters sometimes puzzle disciples by using jargon or poking fun, or giving a slap, blow, or kick instead of an answer.
At the end of the chapter, Chang reveals his thesis for the rest of the book: Although most people view Zen sympathetically, the behavior of the masters is evidence of the underlying insanity in this worldview.
In Part 2, Chang presents the reasons that the West fell victim to the seduction of Eastern religion and philosophy. He observes how modern Western culture has drifted away from centering on God. The resulting secular culture has an emptiness that people are seeking to fill. Eastern philosophy provides one method of filling that void. It also happens to be more palatable to existentialists and psychologists who no longer want to use the Bible as an authority over culture. After a series of devastating wars, the West is disintegrating from the inside and losing confidence in itself.
In Chapter Two, Chang reviews the intellectual history of the West, laying out the influential Western philosophers who were hostile to Christianity. He begins with Plato, then skips forward to Descartes as emblematic of the period when Western philosophers put too little emphasis on the inter-relationship between theology and philosophy. Western thinkers drifted away from theology under the influence of David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Charles Darwin, August Comte, and John Dewey. Instead, they embraced a naturalism that was essentially atheistic in its conception of reality. Since those philosophies have proven themselves insufficient to resolve the problems that now plague the West, Eastern religions started to infiltrate the schools of thinking. Chang specifically identifies Nietzsche and Kierkegaard as opening the door to Eastern philosophy through existentialism.
In Chapter Three, Chang addresses the fact that the growing influence of Eastern philosophy in the West is not the result of any invasive effort from Eastern culture, but rather almost entirely the result of the West’s negating so much of its own identity that it has left behind a vacuum. The more people became dissatisfied with Christianity, the more Eastern religions appealed to them--especially for people like historian Arnold Toynbee, who wanted the religions of India and Buddhism to influence Christian theology. In fact, there was a fad among Western scholars to associate Jesus and Buddhism and find evidence that the latter had influenced the former.
Chang particularly accuses the tendency of syncretism in modern Christianity for facilitating this cultural corruption. He lists several modern scholars who were at the forefront of arguing that all religions are the same, including Paul Tillich, Earnest Benz, and Floyd H. Ross. The end result of this hostility towards orthodox Christianity and enchantment with Eastern religion is that the church’s cultural influence has been significantly weakened in the West. Most of the modern philosophers now identify religion as the cause of the West’s problems instead of the solution.
Chang discusses how twentieth-century theologians have pushed towards a pantheistic theology that claims God can be found within man, which is more compatible with Zen philosophy than with Christianity. The “God-is-dead movement” also supports this shift, along with those who want to deny the divinity of Jesus but keep him as a teacher, bringing him down to the level of Buddha and Confucius. Chang calls these movements “Christian atheism.” He quotes Martin Luther, “When Germany buries its last minister, then it will be burying herself,” building on this idea to declare, “Now the radical theologians are endeavoring to kill and bury God so as to liberate and exalt man, but they are tragically unaware that they are burying themselves.”
Chang considers how the Western philosophy of existentialism and the Eastern philosophy of Zen support and enhance each other’s cultural power. Considering the concerns of Western philosophers, both Zen-Buddhism and existentialism have the same type of solution created by the vacuum of rejecting Christianity: Both are self-focused and promise freedom, and both began with a state of anguish, despair, and a reduction of all existence to pure suffering.
Chang argues that Zen is a more radical and more concentrated form of existentialism, however. He notes that the famous German existentialist Heidegger confided to one of his friends that he found in a book of Zen philosophy everything that he was trying to express through his own writing. As the older philosophy, Zen-Buddhism is more developed than existentialism; it has already passed through the growth pains that existentialism experienced in the 1960s, when Chang was writing.
Chang pauses to consider whether he has been unfair to Zen. He discusses what this philosophy claims to offer people and why that might be appealing, but then goes on to outline all its failures and weaknesses, especially in comparison to Trinitarian Christianity. Chang points out that Zen offers freedom and knowledge, but, since it is a freedom without God, it ends as a false promise.
In Chapter Three, Chang outlines all the destructive impulses and directions to which both existentialism and Zen inevitably lead humanity. He shows how every great existentialist eventually ended in a philosophy of self-destruction, including Sartre, Heidegger, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche. Their thinking tries to place man as the greatest power in the universe, but it also rejects all reason and order in the universe, which only leads to decadence or depression. Chang lays out how all of these anti-Christian philosophies have brought Western man to the state of ultimate despair, where he tries to save himself--but the only one who can save him is Jesus Christ.
In his conclusion, Chang acknowledges that men have been seeking answers about life and God from the beginning of time. Both existentialism and Zen are trying to find new answers when they perceive the old ones to be unsatisfactory. Their main weakness is failing to recognize that truth stays the same throughout all time. Chang illustrates this point with the following story:
A theologian M. Le Peaux confided to de Talleyrand-Perigord his disappointment in the ill success which he had met in his attempt to bring into vogue a new Gospel, which he regarded as an improvement on Christianity, and then asked Talleyrand’s advice as to what he should do. Talleyrand replied that it was difficult indeed to found a new religion, but he said, ‘Still, there is one plan which you might at least try. I should recommend that you be crucified and rise again on the third day.’
Chang concludes that secular philosophies cannot improve the Gospel in any shape or form, and they should refrain from making the attempt. The ultimate failure of Zen-Buddhism is the rejection of sin, and the belief in auto-soterism (saving oneself). Chang urges readers to turn instead to the light of the Gospel for hope and redemption.
In the epilogue and Appendix Three, Chang argues that hippies are making the same mistake as Zen masters: destroying their bodies and minds in pursuit of a goal that will not give them what they want. They should instead find true freedom in Christ. In Appendix One, he gives his personal testimony. Appendix Two contains an essay by the president of Wheaton College, which recounts the terrible effects of drugs on the mind. In Appendix Four, Carl Henry offers a prediction for the trajectory of modern theology: Christians will eventually return to orthodoxy, because the new heterodox theologians have made themselves obsolete with their own radical ideas.
Lit-sen Chang paints a thorough picture of Zen’s pervasive influence in both the East and West. It is admirable how extremely well-read the author is in all the Western philosophers. He quotes an impressive range of thinkers in supporting his arguments. The work is of particular interest because Chang approaches the development of Western philosophy from an unusual angle by examining how philosophy in the East has influenced, encouraged, and responded to that development. We might say that post-modernism is the logical culmination of Zen, since it, too, denies the existence of truth and seeks, instead, some form of personal experience to validate life. The book can be a difficult read due to apparent redundancies in the arguments and organization. Nonetheless, the breadth of Chang’s scholarship and the strength of his Christian witness make it more than worth the reader’s while.
For more on the incisive cultural and theological analysis of Lit-sen Chang, see, Wise Man from the Lit: Lit-sen Chang. Critique of Indigenous Theology. Critique of Humanism. Edited by G. Wright Doyle; translated by G. Wright Doyle and Samuel Ling. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, Studies in Chinese Christianity.
“In the twentieth century, for the first time, there was in the world a universal religion – the Christian religion. . . . In country after country . . . it took root, not as a foreign import, but as the Church of the countries in which it dwells,” this author powerfully proclaims. Though the term is not used, this was the period when “World Christianity” fully came into being as the major development in Christian history and, perhaps, of all human history.
